Muslim Women in India
A
new book provides a broad spectrum investigation into the socio-economic
status of Muslim women in India, and delves into the roots of their
disadvantaged conditions of life.
Stereotyping
is usually a necessary precondition for social discrimination, and all
the more so when various social and cultural realities are sought to
be hardened into ''identities''. That is probably why, over the past
decade especially, certain stereotypes have been systematically developed
about minority communities (especially Muslims abut also Christians).
So Muslim society, for example, is presented as having a monolithic
and undifferentiated character, and Muslim personal law is seen as the
defining feature of the lives of Muslims in India. Such typecasting
is especially prevalent with respect to Muslim women, who are usually
presented as forming a homogenous, undifferentiated group that is so
oppressed by the combined effect of polygamy, purdah and triple talaq
that it is rendered almost invisible.
In such a context, it is refreshing to come across a study that seeks
to go beyond the sociological veil spread by a focus on purdah, and
actually examines the conditions faced by different categories of Muslim
women in the country. A new book by Zoya Hasan and Ritu Menon (''Unequal
Citizens: Muslim women in India'', New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
2004) presents the results of a national survey covering around 10,000
Muslim and Hindu women.
This is the first such survey of this magnitude, covering the whole
country, and obviously therefore the findings deserve attention. But
perhaps even more interesting than the results themselves, are the insights
that are drawn into the interplay of various factors that determine
the conditions of Muslim women’s lives.
Of course there are some easily predictable conclusions, especially
with respect to economic status. The low socio-economic status of Muslims
is now well-known; like Scheduled Castes, they are disproportionately
represented among the poor and have the lowest per capita income indicators.
This is ascribed not only to lack of access to asset ownership, but
also to poor educational attainment and occupational patterns which
show clustering in low-paid activities, as well as the concentration
of the Muslim population in the economically backward regions of the
country.
This economic differentiation constitutes probably the primary source
of differentiation in status between Muslim and Hindu women in the aggregate,
since the household’s level of assets ownership, occupation and income
possibilities critically determine the basic conditions of life of the
women. However, there are significant regional differences in this:
Muslims are generally poor in the north (especially rural areas) and
east, but less so in the south.
But other findings of the study are much less predictable, and do much
to demolish the damaging stereotypes that are so widely purveyed about
Muslim women.
One of the standard assumptions about Muslim women is that religion
prevents them from getting more equal access to education. It is certainly
true that Muslim women are more likely to be illiterate than Hindu women
(in the survey, 59 per cent had never attended school and less than
10 per cent had completed school). However, the study shows that this
is essentially the result of low socio-economic status, rather than
religion. Across the survey, among all communities and caste groups,
financial constraints and gender bias dominate over other factors in
determining levels of education. Indeed, in those regions where Muslims
are better off (as in the south and to a lesser extent in the west),
there Muslim women also have higher levels of education.
However, two other features which are more specific to the Muslim community
may have operated to devalue continuing education for girls. The first
is that Muslim men also have very low educational attainment in general.
The study found that 26 per cent of educated Muslim women had illiterate
husbands. This low male education level would create further pressures
to impose ceilings on girls’ education, so as not to render them ''unmarriageable''.
In addition, the low age of marriage is a major inhibiting factor. For
All-India, the mean age of marriage of Muslim girls is very low at 15.6
years, and in the rural north it falls to an appalling 13.9 years.
Low marriage age has a number of other adverse implications: it is usually
associated with high early fertility, which affects women’s nutrition
and health status; it tends to reduce women’s autonomy and agency in
the marital home and to create conditions of patriarchal subservience
that get perpetuated through life, and it thereby often reduces self-worth.
This in turn may affect women’s work participation in direct and indirect
ways. It is well known that the work participation of Muslim women is
very low, but the study indicates that this may be less due to the force
of religion per se than to the patriarchal structures and patterns as
well as low mobility and lack of opportunity that define their lives.
It is worth noting the work participation rate of women across communities
tends to be low in certain regions, in the north and east especially.
Some of this is due to straightforward control over women’s agency by
male members of the household. 75 per cent of the women in the survey
(both Hindu and Muslim) reported that they need permission from their
husbands to work outside the home. Interestingly, the study revealed
that across the board women in India tend to have relatively less autonomy
of decision-making within the household. Less than 10 per cent of the
respondents took any decisions on their own in major or minor matters,
and among the 30 per cent who took decisions jointly with their husbands,
Muslim women reported greater consultation than Hindus for all categories
of decisions. Clearly, however, patriarchal control remains one important
constraint upon the outside work of women, among Muslims as well as
certain other social categories.
But in addition, most of the outside work that the representative Muslim
woman has access to falls in the lowest paid and most exploited categories
of labour. Such activities - self-employed in low-productivity activities
in the informal sector, as casual labourers and domestic servants -
imply poor working conditions and low wages. It is therefore possible
that Muslim women are kept out of the paid workforce not only by religious
or purdah type motivations, but perhaps more significantly by low education,
lack of opportunity, low mobility and the inability to delegate domestic
responsibilities.
In terms of domestic violence - which is widely recognised to be increasing
in India - the incidence cuts across caste, class and community. The
survey finds that over 50 per cent of the reported violence (which may
of course be different from the actual incidence of violence) is among
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes households, who also happen to
be the poorest of the poor. Muslim women come in third (after Other
Backward Castes) at 18 per cent. What is possibly more significant is
that husbands were identified as the primary perpetrators in more than
80 per cent of cases.
Effectively, what this study shows is that Hindu-Muslim differences
in patterns of marriage, autonomy, mobility and domestic violence are
insignificant. There is no apparent community-wise variation in women’s
decision-making, mobility and access to public spaces. Rather, what
the survey indicates is that most women in India - across communities
and regions - have very little autonomy and control over their own lives.
Of course, such constraints are not felt equally by all women, but the
distinctions are more determined by class and geographical location
than by community. Indeed, regional development appears to be a better
predictor of the status of women than ''Muslimness'' or religion per
se.
These are obviously extremely important results, which point to a different
direction for public policy as well. There are clear indications of
the need for a new, less predetermined conception of community and especially
of the status of women within a community. This would go beyond the
patterns of special group recognition, in which notions of ''identity''
(however patriarchal) are maintained at all cost. It would also have
to avoid getting bogged down by controversies over minority claims of
enhanced representation in government jobs and the like.
Rather, the social and economic processes that confront marginal groups
in general need to be addressed - enable greater real democracy both
across different social groups and across gender within social groups.